Study Guide Questions

1. What is the difference between a quantitative approach and a qualitative approach to assessment?
   
   
2. Give a brief description and one example of each of the following nonformal assessment tools: categorical, narrative, and descriptive.
   
   
3. Describe the following types of assessment: norm-referenced, criterion-referenced, and curriculum-based. Identify one limitation of each.
   
   
4. Describe the measurement processes and their purposes.
   
   
5. When conducting assessments of children from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds, what is one factor that a professional should take into consideration? Why?
   

Answer Key

1. From a quantitative perspective, assessment is viewed primarily as an objective measurement process that results in a numerical representation of children’s behaviors and abilities. From a qualitative perspective, assessment is viewed as the documentation of more broadly defined behaviors as they occur in natural settings.
   
   
   
2. Categorical tools have predetermined categories into which all events and behaviors are coded during the observation. Examples include rating scales and checklists.
   
   Narrative tools are systematic and detailed written descriptions of behaviors. Examples include journals, running records, anecdotal notes of observations of critical incidents, and ethnographic notes recorded during participant observations.
   
   Descriptive tools are verbatim accounts of actual language use and provide a detailed record of behaviors and a description of various contexts. Examples include language transcripts.
   
   
   
3. Norm-referenced assessments provide information on how a child is developing in relation to a larger group of children of the same chronological age. Some limitations include
   
   
   1. Norm-referenced assessments often lead to an underestimation of capabilities of children with disabilities.
      
      
   2. The behaviors tested may not necessarily be educationally relevant.
      
      
   3. These assessments do not yield direct information for making program decisions or choosing curricular content.
      
      
   4. Little information is gathered on environmental factors and intervention strategies that may promote or hinder a child’s progress.
      
      

   Criterion-referenced assessments measure mastery of specific objectives defined by predetermined standards of criteria. Some limitations include
   
   

   1. Many criterion-referenced assessments were developed by selecting isolated items from various norm-referenced instruments, which do not necessarily represent functional behaviors that can be used to develop educational goals.
      
      
   2. These assessments are based on a fragmented skill, test-teach-test approach that does not reflect early 21-century models of the way children develop and learn.
      
      

   Curriculum-based assessments are a form of criterion-referenced measurement in which curricular objectives serve as the criteria for the identification of educational targets. Some limitations include
   
   

   1. Many curriculum-based assessments were developed by selecting isolated items from various norm-referenced instruments, which do not necessarily represent functional behaviors that can be used to develop educational goals.
      
      
   2. These assessments are based on a fragmented skill, test-teach-test approach, which does not reflect current models of the way children develop and learn.
      
      
      
4. A comprehensive assessment should involve four processes, each with its own unique purpose: screening, diagnostic assessment, program assessment, and evaluation. Screening is conducted to identify children who may be at risk for health or developmental problems and should occur prior to the other measurement processes. Following an initial suspicion of a delay, a diagnostic assessment is conducted to provide in-depth information regarding the specific nature and extent of the problem. Program assessment addresses the need to obtain educationally relevant information and provide guidance in the development of educational programs. Evaluation involves comparing children's performance on a program assessment before and after intervention.
   
   
   
5. Possible answers:
   
   
   • An accurate understanding of a child’s needs should include information about the child’s behaviors in the context of the family and community. Children display competence differently across school and other social settings, and traditional assessments may underestimate the child’s abilities.
     
     
   • Children from different cultural backgrounds may score poorly on norm-referenced tests because of the external biases of tests constructed to reflect the mainstream culture and beliefs.
     
     
   • Responses to stress caused by acculturation factors can be easily confused with learning disabilities.
     
     
   • Children with limited proficiency in the language used for instruction need to pay attention to both the instructional content and the language used to convey that content.
     
     
   • For children who are bilingual, assessment must provide information about their knowledge of languages other than English so that the assessment of language development can be differentiated from the use of language as a medium for instruction.